Autobiography
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Gandhi’s
autobiography, which he had titled ‘My experiments with Truth’ can be rated
as one of the most popular and the most influential books in the recent
history. It was written at the instance of Swami Anand. It appeared in the
Weekly ‘Navjivan’ during 1925-28. It covers Gandhi’s life up to 1920. He did
not cover the period after that as it was well known to the people and most
of the concerned persons were alive. Besides he felt that his experiments in
that period were yet to yield definite conclusions.
Gandhi’s
autobiography is very different from other autobiographies. The
autobiographies normally contain self-praise by the authors. They want to
criticize their opponents and boost their own image in the people’s eyes.
Gandhi’s autobiography is completely free from all this. It is marked with
humility and truthfulness. He had not hidden anything. In fact, he is rather
too harsh on himself. He did not want to show to the world how good he was.
He only wanted to tell the people the story of his experiments with Truth.
Truth,
for Gandhi, was the supreme principle, which includes many other principles.
Realization of the Truth is the purpose of human life. Gandhi always strove
to realize the Truth. He continuously tried to remove impurities in himself.
He always tried to stick to the Truth as he knew and to apply the knowledge
of the Truth to everyday life. He tried to apply the spiritual principles to
the practical situations. He did it in the scientific spirit. Sticking to the
truth means Satyagraha. Gandhi therefore called his experiments as
‘Experiments with Truth’ or ‘Experiments in the science of Satyagraha.’
Gandhi also requested the readers to treat those experiments as illustrative
and to carry out their own experiments in that light.
Gandhi: An Introduction
Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi was a man considered one of the great sages and prophets.
He was held as another Buddha, another Jesus, Indians called him the ‘Father
of the Nation’. They showered their love, respect and devotion on him in an
unprecedented measure. They thronged his way to have a glimpse of him, to
hear one world from his lips. They applied on their foreheads the dust on the
path he had trodden. For them, he was almost an incarnation of God, who had
come to break the chains of their slavery. The whole world bowed to him in
reverence. Even his opponents held him in great respect.
Mohandas
Gandhi was, however, not a great scholar, nor was he a great warrior. He was
not born with exceptional faculties. Neither was he a good orator, nor a
great writer. He did not claim anything exclusively divine in him. He did not
claim being a prophet or having superhuman powers. He considered himself an
average man with average abilities. Born in a middle class Bania family in an
obscure princely State in a corner of India, he was a mediocre student, shy
and nervous. He could not muster courage to speak in public. His first
attempt at legal practice miserably failed.
But he was a humble seeker of Truth. He was a man with exceptional sincerity, honesty and truthfulness. For him, understanding meant action. Once any principle appealed to him, he immediately began to translate that in practice. He did not flinch from taking risks and did not mind confessing mistakes. No opposition, scorn or ridicule could affect him. Truth was his sole guiding star. He was ever-growing; hence he was often found inconsistent. He was not concerned with appearing to be consistent. He preferred to be consistent only with the light within.
He
sacrificed his all and identified himself with the poorest of the poor. He
dressed like them, lived like them. In the oppressed and the depressed
people, he saw God. For him, they too were sparks of the divine light. They
might not have anything else, but they too had a soul. For Gandhi, soul-force
was the source of the greatest power. He strove to awaken the soul-force
within himself and within his fellowmen. He was convinced that the
potentialities of the soul-force have no limit. He himself was a living
example of this conviction. That is why this tiny and fragile man could
mobilise the masses and defeat the mighty British empire. His eleven vows,
his technique of Satyagraha, his constructive programme - all were meant to
awaken and strengthen the soul-force. He awakened and aroused a nation from
semi-consciousness. It was a Herculean task. For, India was not a united
country, it was a sub-continent. It was a society divided in different
classes, castes and races, in people with different languages, religions and
cultures.
It
was a society where almost half of the population i.e., women, was behind
purdah or confined to the four walls of houses, where one-fourth of the
population - the depressed classes - was living marginalised life, where many
did not have a single full meal every day. Gandhi made the oppressed sections
wake up and break their chains. He mobilised the people and united them to
work for the cause of Swaraj, which gave them a sense of belonging, a sense
of purpose. Gandhi wanted to win Swaraj for the masses. For him, Swaraj did
not mean replacement of White masters by brown masters. Swaraj meant
self-rule by all. He said: ”Real Swaraj will come, not by the acquisition of
the authority by a few, but by the acquisition of the capacity by all to
resist authority when it is abused.” He worked to develop such a capacity.
Development of such a capacity involved transformation of the individual.
Transformation
of the individual and transformation of the society - they were not separate,
unrelated things for Gandhi. Revolutionary social philosophies had
concentrated on changing the society. On the other hand, spiritual seekers
had concentrated on the inner change. Gandhi not only bridged the gap between
these extremes, he fused them together. Gandhi was thus both a saint and a
social revolutionary. For Gandhi, unity of life was great truth. His principle
of non-violence stemmed from this conviction. Non-violence was not a matter
of policy for him; it was a matter of faith. He applied the doctrine to all
the departments of individual and social life and in so doing revolutionized
the doctrine, made it dynamic and creative. He believed that a true
civilization could be built on the basis of such non-violence only.
He rejected the modern civilization. For him, it was a disease and a curse. This civilization leads to violence, conflicts, corruption, injustices, exploitation, oppression, mistrust and a process of dehumanisation. It has led the world to a deep crisis. The earth’s resources are being cornered by a handful of people without any concern for others and for the coming generations. The conventional energy sources are getting depleted. Forests are being destroyed. Air, water, soil-everything has been polluted.
We
are living under the shadow of nuclear war and environmental disasters.
Thinking men the world over are looking to Gandhi to find a way out of this
crisis and to build an alternative model of sustainable development. Gandhi
knew that the earth has enough to satisfy everybody’s need but not anybody’s
greed. He had called for the replacement of greed with love. Gandhi is,
therefore, now a source of inspiration and a reference book for all those
fighting against racial discrimination, oppression, domination, wars, nuclear
energy, environmental degradation, lack of freedom and human rights- for all
those who are fighting for a better world, a better quality of life. Gandhi
is, therefore, no longer an individual. He is a symbol of all that is the
best and the most enduring in the human tradition. And he is also a symbol of
the alternative in all areas of life-agriculture, industry, technology, education,
health, economy, political organisations, etc. He is a man of the future - a
future that has to be shaped if the human race has to survive and progress on
the path of evolution.
Birth and Parentage
Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar, a coastal city in Kathiawad (now a
part of the Gujarat State) on the 2nd October 1869. He was the youngest child
of his parents, Karamchand and Putlibai.
Gandhis
belonged to the Modh Bania community. They were originally grocers. However,
Uttamchand, Mohan’s grandfather, rose to become Dewan of the Porbandar State.
Mohan’s father. Karamchand, also served as the Dewan of Porbandar, Rajkot and
Vankaner States. Kathiawar then had about 300 small States. Court intrigues
were the order of the day. At times, Gandhis became their victim.
Uttamchand’s house was once surrounded and shelled by the State troops.
Karamchand was once arrested. However, their courage and wisdom earned them
respect. Karamchand even became a member of the Rajashanik Court, a powerful
agency to solve disputes among the States.
Karamchand
had little education, but had shrewdness of judgment and practical knowledge
acquired through experience. He had little inclination to amass wealth and
left little for his children. He used to say that “My children are my
wealth’. He married four times, had two daughters by the first two marriages
and one daughter and three sons by his fourth marriage. Putlibai, his fourth
wife, was younger to him by 25 years. She was not much educated but was
well-informed about practical matters. Ladies at the palace used to value her
advice. She was deeply religious and superstitious and had strong will-power.
She used to visit the temple daily and regularly kept difficult vows. Mohan
loved his mother. He used to accompany her to the Haveli (Vaishnav temple).
Mohan
had a great devotion for his father and he often used to be present at the
discussions about the State problems. Gandhis had Parsi and Muslim friends
and Jain monks used to make regular visit. Mohan thus had occasion to hear
discussions about religious matters also. Being the youngest, he was the
darling of the household.
Childhood
Mohan attended Primary School at Porbandar. When he was seven, his family moved to Rajkot. He was a mediocre student, was shy and avoided any company. He read little besides the text books and had no love for outdoor games. He had no love for outdoor games. However, he was truthful, honest, sensitive and was alert about his character. Plays about Shravan and Harishchandra made a deep impression on him. They taught him to be truthful at any cost and to serve his parents with devotion.
He
was married along with his brother and cousin for the sake of economy and
convenience. He was only 13 then. He enjoyed the festivities of the marriage.
Kasturbai, his wife, was of the same age. She was illiterate but
strong-willed. His jealousy and immature efforts to make her an ideal wife
led to many quarrels. He wanted to teach her but found no time. His
experience later made him a strong critic of child-marriages.
Mohan
joined High School at Rajkot. He was liked by the teachers and often received
prizes. But he neglected physical training and hand-writing. Habit of taking
long walks made up for the first neglect, but he had to repent later for the
neglect of handwriting. He was devoted to his father and considered it his
duty to nurse him during his illness. In the High-School, he made friends
with one Sheikh Mehtab, a bad character. He stuck to the friendship despite
warnings from family-members. He wanted to reform Mehtab but failed. Mehtab
induced him to meat-eating, saying that it made one strong and that the
British were ruling India because they were meat-eaters. Mohan was frail and
used to be afraid even to go out alone in the dark. The argument appealed to
him. Later, he realized that lying to his parents was worse than not eating
meat, and abandoned the experiment.
Mehtab
once sent him to a brothel, but God’s grace saved him. He induced Mohan to
smoking. This once led to stealing. But all this became unbearable for Mohan.
He confessed his guilt to his father, who did not rebuke him but wept
silently. Those tears cleaned Mohan’s heart and taught him a lesson in
nonviolence.
Mohan’s
father died when Mohan was 16. He had nursed him daily. But at the time of
his death, Mohan was with his wife. He always felt ashamed for this lapse.
Mohan passed the matriculation examination in 1887. He attended the College
at Bhavnagar, but left after the first term. At that time, the idea of his
going to England for studying law came up. Mohan was fascinated. He made up
his mind and overcame resistance from the family-members. He took the vow not
to touch wine, women and meat at the instance of his mother to remove her
fears. He then sailed from Bombay in September 1888, leaving behind his wife
and a son. The caste elders were against his going to England. They
excommunicated him from the caste.
Gandhi in England
Gandhi
reached England by the end of September 1888. Everything was strange to him.
He was shy and diffident, could not speak English fluently and was ignorant
of British manners. Naturally, loneliness and homesickness gripped him.
Gandhi became a vegetarian for life. It was difficult to get vegetarian food.
Friends persuaded him to break the vow of vegetarianism but he stuck to it.
He began searching vegetarian restaurants and found one ultimately. He
purchased Salt’s book ‘Plea for Vegetarianism’, read it and became vegetarian
out of conviction. He studied other literature and joined the Vegetarian
Society.
He
came in contact with the leaders of that radical cult, became a member of the
Society’s Executive Committee and contributed articles to the Society’s
paper. He even started a Vegetarian club in his locality and became its
Secretary. This experience gave him some training in organising and
conducting Institutions. Experiments about diet became a life-long passion
for him.
Gandhi tries to play the ‘English Gentleman’
For a brief period, Gandhi tried to become ‘The English Gentleman’ to overcome lack of confidence and to make up for the ‘fad’ of vegetarianism. He wanted to become fit for the British elite society. He got clothes stitched from an expensive and fashionable firm, purchased an expensive hat and an evening suit and learnt to wear the tie. He became very careful about his appearance. He even joined a dancing class, but could not go on for more than three weeks. He purchased a violin and started learning to play it. He engaged a tutor to give lessons in elocution. But all this was for a brief period of three months only. His conscience awakened him. He realised that he was not going to spend his whole life in England; he should rather concentrate on his studies and not waste his brother’s money. He then became very careful about his expenses.
Study of religions
Gandhi
also started the study of religions. Before that, he had not even read the
Gita. Now he read it in the English translation. He also read Edwin Arnold’s
‘The Light of Asia,’ Blavatsky’s ‘Key to Theosophy’ and the Bible. Gita and
The New Testament made a deep impression on him. The principles of
renunciation and non-violence appealed to him greatly. He continued the study
of religions throughout his life.
Gandhi becomes a Barrister
Bar
examinations were easy. He therefore studied for and passed the London
matriculation examination. Becoming a Barrister meant attending at least six
dinners in each of the twelve terms and giving an easy examination. Gandhi,
however, studied sincerely, read all the prescribed books, passed his
examination and was called to the bar in June 1891. He then sailed for home.
A Period of turmoil
Gandhi’s three year’s stay in England was a period of deep turmoil for him. Before that, he knew little of the world. Now he was exposed to the fast-changing world and to several radical movements like Socialism, Anarchism, Atheism etc. through the Vegetarian Society. He started taking part in public work. Many of his ideas germinated during this period.
Gandhi in South Africa
Gandhi returned to India as a Barrister, but he knew nothing about the Indian law. Lawyers used to pay commissions to touts to get cases. Gandhi did not like this. Besides, he was shy and an occasion to argue in the Court unnerved him. He became a disappointed and dejected ‘Bridles Barrister’. At that time, a South African firm Dada Abdulla and Co. asked for his assistance in a case. Gandhi eagerly agreed and sailed for South Africa in April 1893.
Problems of Indians in South Africa
The small Indian community in South Africa was facing many problems at that time. It consisted mainly of indentured labourers and traders. The indentured labourers were taken there by the European landlords as there was acute labour shortage in South Africa. The condition of these labourers was like slaves. During 1860-1890 around 40,000 labourers were sent from India. Many of them settled there after their agreement periods were completed and started farming or business.
The
Europeans did not like it. They did not want free Indians in South Africa.
They also found it difficult to face competition from Indian traders.
Therefore the White Rulers imposed many restrictions and heavy taxes on the
Indians. They were not given citizenship rights, like right to vote. They
were treated like dirt and constantly humiliated. All Indians were called
‘coolies’. The newspapers carried out the propaganda that the Indians were
dirty and uncivilized. The Indians could not travel in the railways and could
not enter hotels meant for Europeans. They were hated and radically
discriminated in all matters by the dominant White community.
Gandhi fights racial discrimination
Right since his arrival, Gandhi began to feel the pinch of racial discrimination in South Africa. Indian community was ignorant and divided and therefore unable to fight it. In connection with his case, Gandhi had to travel to Pretoria. He was travelling in the first class, but a White passenger and railway officials asked him to leave the first class compartment. Gandhi refused, whereupon he was thrown out along with his luggage. On the platform of Maritzburg station. It was a severely cold night. Gandhi spent the night shivering and thinking furiously. He ultimately made up his mind to stay in South Africa, fight the racial discrimination and suffer hardships. It was a historic decision. It transformed Gandhi.
He
had also to travel some distance by a stage-coach. During this travel also,
he was insulted and beaten. On reaching Pretoria, Gandhi called a meeting of
the local Indians. There he learnt a lot about the condition of Indians. It
was there that he made his first Public Speech and suggested formation of an
association. He offered his services for the cause. Gandhi later settled the
case, for which he had come, through arbitration. He then decided to return
home. But at the farewell party, he came to know about a bill to restrict
Indian franchise. Gandhi thought that it had grave implications. The people
then pressed him to stay for some time. He agreed.
Gandhi’s
first major fight had started. He addressed meetings petitioned to the
legislative assembly, conducted a signature campaign. He also started regular
legal practice there and soon became a successful and leading Lawyer. For
sustained agitations, a permanent organisation was needed and the Natal
Indian Congress was born. Illiterate indentured labourers also joined the
struggle. A proposed tax on them was fought and got abolished after a fierce
battle.
In1886,
Gandhi visited India for a brief period. In India, he met renowned leaders
and gave wide publicity to the South African struggle. Rumours reached South
Africa that Gandhi had maligned the Whites there and that he was coming with
a large number of Indians to swamp the Natal colony. It was wrong. But it
made the Whites furious. Gandhi had to face the fury, when he returned with
his wife and children, he had to enter the port town secretly, but he was
found out and assaulted. The Whites wanted to hang him but he was saved by
the Police Superintendent and his wife. He forgave his assailants.
The Boer War
Gandhi, however, remained a loyal citizen of the British Empire. In that spirit, he decided to help the British during the Boer War. The Boer were the Dutch colonizers who ruled some of the South African colonies. They were simple and sturdy people with strong racial prejudices. The British wanted to rule whole of the South Africa. The British-Boer broke out in 1899. Gandhi’s sympathies were with the Boers. But being a British citizen, he considered it his duty to help the British. He also wanted to show that Indians were not cowards and were ready to make sacrifices for the empire while fighting for their rights.
Gandhi
raised an ambulance corps of 1100 persons. The work consisted of carrying the
wounded on stretchers. At times, it required walking more than 20 miles. The
corps had sometimes to cross the firing line. The Indians worked hard, their
work was praised and the leaders of the corps were awarded medals. Indian
community learnt a lot from this experience. Its stature increased. British
won the war, although the Boers fought with determination, which made a deep
impression on Gandhi.
The Fight continues
In 1901, Gandhi returned to India. He travelled widely and worked closely with Gopal Krishna Gokhale, whom he considered his guru. He was about to settle down in Bombay, when he received an urgent telegram from South Africa to rush there. Gandhi again went to South Africa. He found that the condition of Indians had worsened. Gandhi had to devote himself to public work. In 1904, Gandhi started the journal ‘Indian Opinion.’
The Phoenix Settlement
In 1904, Gandhi happened to read Ruskin’s book ‘Unto This Last.’ He was deeply impressed by Ruskin’s ideas and decided to put them in practice immediately. They were: (I) That the good of the individual is contained in the good of all. (ii) that all work has the same value and (iii) that the life of labour is the life worth-living.
Gandhi
purchased some land near Phoenix station and established the Phoenix
settlement in mid-1904. The settlers had to erect structures to accommodate
themselves and the printing press. ‘Indian Opinion’ was transferred to
Phoenix. The settlers had to go through many trials to print the issue in time.
Everyone had to join in the work. The settlers were divided in two classes.
The ‘Schemers’ made their living by manual labour. A few were paid labourers.
To make a living by manual labour, land was divided in pieces of three acres
each. Stress was on manual labour. Even the printing press was often worked
with hand-power. Sanitary arrangements were primitive and everyone had to be
his own scavenger. The colony was to be self-supporting and the material
needs were to be kept to the minimum. A spirit of self-reliance pervaded the
colony. Gandhi, however, could stay there only for brief periods. He had to
be in Johannesburg in connection with his work.
The Zulu Rebellion
The Zulu ‘rebellion’ broke out in April 1906. It was not in fact a rebellion, but a man-hunt. The British wanted to crush the freedom-loving Zulu tribals. The operation to massacre them was, therefore, started under a flimsy pretext. Out of a sense of loyalty to the British empire, Gandhi offered the services of the Indian community, though his heart was with the Zulus. An ambulance corps of 24 persons was formed. Its duty was to carry the wounded Zulus and nurse them. The Zulus were flogged and tortured and left with festering wounds. Whites were not ready to nurse them. Gandhi was happy to nurse them. He had to work hard and walk miles through hills. It was a thought-provoking experience. He saw the cruelty of the British and the horrors of the war. While marching through Zululand, Gandhi thought deeply. Two ideas became fixed in his mind-Brahmacharya and the adoption of voluntary poverty.
Birth of Satyagraha
The White rulers were bent on keeping South Africa under their domination. They wanted as few Indians there as possible and that too as slave-labourers. In Transvaal, Indians were required to register themselves. The procedure was humiliating. The registration was proposed to be made stricter in 1906. Gandhi realised that it was a matter of life or death for the Indians. A mammoth meeting was held in September 1906 to oppose the bill. People took oath in the name of God not to submit to the bill at any cost. A new principle had come into being - the principle of Satyagraha. The bill about registration was however passed. Picketing against registration was organised. A wave of courage and enthusiasm swept the Indian community. The Indian community rose as one man for the sake of its survival and dignity.
The
agitation was first called ‘passive Resistance’. Gandhi, however, did not
like that term. It did not convey the true nature of the struggle. It implied
that it was the weapon of the weak and the disarmed. It did not denote
complete faith in nonviolence. Moreover, Gandhi did not like that the Indian
struggle should be known by an English name. The term ‘Sadagrah’ was
suggested. Gandhi changed it to ‘Satyagrah’ to make it represent fully, the
whole idea. Satyagraha means asserting truth through non-violence. It aims at
converting the opponents through self-suffering.
Gandhi
was ordered to leave the colony. He disobeyed and was jailed for two months.
Indians filled the jails. Repression failed to yield the results. General
Smuts called Gandhi and promised that the law would be withdrawn if the
Indians agreed to voluntary registration.
An attempt of Gandhi’s life
Gandhi agreed. He and his co-workers were set free. Gandhi exhorted Indians to register voluntarily. He was criticized for this by some workers. A Pathan named Mir Alam was unconvinced by Gandhi’s arguments and vowed to kill the first man who would register himself. Gandhi came forward to be the first man to register himself. When he was going to the registration office, Mir Alam and his friends assaulted him with lathis.
Gandhi
fainted with the words ‘He Ram’ on his lips. It was 10th February 1908. His
colleagues tried to save him otherwise it would have been the last day for
him. Mir Alam and his friends were caught and handed over to the police. When
Gandhi regained consciousness, he inquired about Mir Alam. When told that he
had been arrested, Gandhi told that he should be released. Gandhi was taken
by his friend Rev. Doke to his house and was nursed there. Rev. Doke later
became his first biographer.
Gandhi betrayed
Smuts however, betrayed Gandhi. The agitation was again resumed. The voluntary registration certificates were publicly burnt. Meanwhile, Transvaal passed Immigration Restriction Act. This too was opposed by the Indians. They crossed Transvaal border illegally and were jailed. Gandhi, too, was arrested and convicted. The fight continued in spite of the repression.
Tolstoy Farm
Gandhi realised that the fight would be a long one. He, therefore, desired to have a center where the Satyagrahis could lead a simple community life and get training for the struggle. Phoenix was at about 30 hours distance from Johannesburg. Gandhi’s German friend Kallenbach therefore bought 1100 acres of land at a distance of about 20 miles from Johannesburg, where Tolstoy Farm was established. The community was named after Tolstoy to pay respect to the great Russian writer whose book ‘The Kingdom of God is within You’ had greatly influenced Gandhi and made him a firm believer in non-violence.
The
inmates numbered about 50-75. It was a heterogeneous group. It was a tribute
to Gandhi’s leadership that they remained together happily under hard conditions.
The inmates erected sheds to accommodate themselves. They did all their work
themselves. Drinking, smoking and meat-eating were prohibited. All ate in the
community kitchen. Small Cottage Industries were started for
self-sufficiency. Gandhi and his colleagues learnt shoe-making. A school was
started. Gandhi himself undertook the responsibility of educating the
children. The life was simple, hard, but joyful. Experiments at Tolstoy Farm
proved to be a source of purification and penance for Gandhi and his
co-workers.
The last phase of Satyagraha
Satyagraha continued for four years. Gandhi discontinued his legal practice in 1910. After many ups and downs, the last phase of Satyagraha began in September 1913. A Black Law imposing three pounds tax on Indians provided occasion for it. Satyagrahis crossed Transvaal border defying the law. Even the women were invited to join. Indian workers in the Natal coal-mines struck work and joined the struggle. Gandhi led a large contingent of these workers. They were about 2200 in number. It was on epic march.
It
aroused sympathy for Satyagraha and indignation for the South African
Government throughout England and India. Indian National Congress supported
the Satyagraha. Gandhi was arrested. The Satyagrahis marched to Natal without
their leader. There, they were arrested and jailed. Thousands of labourers
struck work in sympathy. The public outcry in India forced the Indian
Government to express sympathy for the Indian cause. The repression having
failed, General Smuts had to bow ultimately. Indian demands were accepted.
The fight was over. Gandhi now could return to India where a great work
awaited him.
It
was South Africa which made Gandhi. He had gone there as a young, shy,
Briefless Barrister. He returned as an extra-ordinary leader who had
mobilised masses to an unprecedented extent for a novel fight. In South
Africa, Gandhi’s ideas were shaped. He was influenced by Ruskin, Tolstoy and
Thoreau. He made a deep study of religions there and became a staunch
believer in nonviolence. The principle of Satyagraha was born in S. Africa.
Gandhi in India: Rise of leadership
Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. He was welcomed and honoured as a hero. He spent a year touring the country at the instance of Gokhale, his guru. He travelled mostly in third class railway compartments. He saw the conditions in the country first-hand. He founded the Satyagraha Ashram in May 1915 and started getting involved in the social and political life of the country. The Champaran Satyagraha was his first major struggle.
Champaran Satyagraha
Champaran was a district in Northern Bihar. When Gandhi was called there, it was virtually under the rule of European indigo planters. They cruelly exploited and terrorised the tenants. Under the ‘tinkathia’ system, the tenants had to cultivate indigo in 3/20th part of the land. The tenants were oppressed and fear-stricken. The British administration supported the planters.
Gandhi
was invited to visit Champaran by Rajkumar Shukla, a peasant from the area,
in December 1916. Gandhi was first reluctant. But Shukla’s persistent
requests made him change his mind. He went to Champaran in April 1917 to know
the conditions there and the grievances of the peasants. Before visiting the
district, Gandhi visited Muzaffarpur and Patna. He discussed the matter with
lawyers and social workers. Gandhi declined to seek legal remedies as he felt
that law courts were useless when the people were fear-stricken. For him,
removal of fear was most important. He made request to the lawyers for
clerical assistance. Many of them gladly offered the same.
Gandhi
first met the planters and the District Commissioner. They were hostile.
Gandhi was ordered to leave the area. He ignored the order. He was then
summoned to the court. The news electrified the area. Crowds gathered at the
court. Gandhi pleaded guilty, saying that he was obeying a higher law, the
voice of conscience. The case against him was later dropped. Gandhi and his
co-workers met thousands of the peasants. They recorded about 8000 statements.
Efforts were made to ensure that they were true. Recording was done in the
presence of police officials. Undue publicity and exaggeration were avoided.
Planters’ campaign of slander was ignored. The masses in Champaran overcame
their fear. Public opinion in the country was aroused. The Government
ultimately appointed an enquiry committee in June 1917, with Gandhi as a
member. The committee recommended abolition of tinkathia system and partial
refund of money taken illegal by the planters. The Satyagraha was thus
successful. Champaran Satyagraha was the first Satyagraha on the Indian soil.
It was Gandhi’s first major political work in India. It was carried out
strictly in accordance with the principles of Satyagraha. Attention was paid
to constructive work like sanitation, education and primary health-care.
Ahmedabad Satyagraha
A dispute between the textile mill-owners and the labourers at Ahmedabad arose in 1918, about the grant of bonus and dearness allowance. The labourers wanted 50% increase allowance due to steep rise in prices. The mill-owners were ready to give only 20% increase. Gandhi was approached to find a solution. He persuaded both the parties to agree to arbitration. But after a few days, some misunderstanding led to a strike. The mill-owners seized the opportunity and declared lock-out. Gandhi studied the case. He thought that 35% increase would be reasonable. He advised the labourers to demand the same. Regular strike began on the 26th February 1918. Thousands of labourers struck work. They took a pledge not to resume work till their demand was met or arbitration was agreed upon. They also decided to observe non-violence and maintain peace.
Gandhi
had friends in both the camps. The mill-owners being led by Shri Ambalal
Sarabhai. His sister Ansuyaben was leading the labourers. During the
struggle, Gandhi’s co-workers regularly visited the labourers’ quarters to
solve their problems and to keep high their morale. Daily meetings and
prayers were held. Bulletins were issued. Gandhi did not like charity.
Efforts were made to find alternative employments for the workers. However,
after a fortnight, the workers started getting tired. It was difficult to
face starvation. It was unbearable for Gandhi that they should break the vow.
He then decided to undertake an indefinite fast. This strengthened the
workers. It brought moral pressure on the mill-owners. They consented to
arbitration after three days. Gandhi broke his fast. The Satyagraha was
successful. The arbitrator studied the case for three months and recommended
35% increase in dearness allowance. The workers’ demand was thus fully met.
However, Gandhi’s fast did involve in an element of coercion. But it was a
spontaneous decision. The situation demanded some drastic action. The
Satyagraha was significant in many respects. It was the first Satyagraha by
industrial workers. It was wholly peaceful. It showed how workers could fight
non-violently. It also gave rise to a strong Gandhian Labour Union.
Kheda Satyagraha
Kheda was a district in Gujarat. In 1917, there was a crop failure due to famine. Peasants were unable to pay the land revenue. The rules permitted suspension of revenue collection when the crops were less than four annas. According to the peasants’ estimate, the crops were less than four annas. Gandhi’s inquiries, as well as inquiries by independent observers, showed that the peasants were right. The Government, however, thought otherwise. It even turned down a suggestion of an impartial enquiry. It started coercing the peasants to collect revenue. Petitions etc. were of no avail. Satyagraha was therefore started on the 22nd March 1918.
Gandhi
advised the peasants to withhold payment to revenue. Satyagrahis took a
pledge not to pay the same and resolved to be ready to face the consequences.
Volunteers went to villages to keep up the morale of the peasants. As in
Champaran, Gandhi’s main concern was to remove the fear from the peasants’
minds. The officials started attaching the property of the peasants including
cattle and even standing crops. Notices were sent for attachment of the land.
An occasion for civil disobedience arose when standing onion crop was
attached at one place. Gandhi advised one Mohanlal Pandya and a few
volunteers to remove the crop. This was done. The volunteers were arrested.
Pandya earned the nickname ‘Onion Thief.’
The
struggle went on for about four months till July 1918. It tested the people’s
patience. The Government discontinued coercive measures. It advised that if
the well-to-do peasants paid up, the poor ones would be granted suspension.
In one sense, the Satyagraha was thus successful. The peasants’ demand was
not, however, fully met. Gandhi was not satisfied. He wanted people to come
out stronger after Satyagraha. However, the Satyagraha resulted in awakening
the peasants. It educated them politically. It was the first peasant struggle
under Gandhi’s leadership, the first nonviolent mass civil disobedience
campaign organised by Gandhi in India. The peasants became aware of their
rights and learnt to suffer for them.
Rowlatt Act
British Government appointed a Committee in 1917 under the chairmanship of Justice Rowlatt, (1) to enquire and report to the Government about the nature and extent of anti-government activities, and (2) to suggest legal remedies to enable the Government to suppress those activities. The Committee submitted its report in April 1918. Its work was carried out in secrecy. The Committee’s recommendations were embodied in two bills.
The
first bill sought to make a permanent change in the Criminal Law. The second
bill intended to deal with the situation arising out of the expiry of Defence
of India Rules. The first bill made punishable the possession of an
antigovernment document with mere intention to circulate it. The second bill
also gave sweeping powers to the officers. There were other harsh provisions
also. The bills shocked the entire country. All the leaders considered the
bills unjust, unwarranted and destructive of elementary human rights and
dignity. The second bill was eventually dropped and the first one passed as a
Law in March 1919.
Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act
India had helped the British in the World War. She expected substantial political rights. Instead, she received the Black Rowlatt bills.
Gandhi
had decided to help the British war efforts during the war. He undertook a
recruiting campaign and worked hard which ruined his health. While he was
recovering, he heard about Rowlatt bills. He was shocked. He took up the
matter and started propaganda against the bill. Gandhi carried out propaganda
against the bill. A separate body called Satyagraha Sabha was formed. A
Satyagraha pledge was drafted and signed by selected leaders. The Government
was, however, adamant. It then suddenly it occurred to Gandhi that a call for
nation-wide hartal should be given. Everybody in the country should suspend
his business and spend the day in fasting and prayers. Public meetings should
be held everywhere and resolutions passed for withdrawal of the Act.
The
programme was taken up. 30 March was fixed as the day of the hartal, but it
was later postponed to 6th April. The notice was very short. Still the masses
rose to the occasion. The country rose like one man. Hartal was observed
throughout India. Communal prejudices were forgotten. All fear disappeared.
In Delhi, Swami Shraddhanand, the Hindu sanyasi was invited to Jama Masjid.
It was also decided that civil disobedience should be offered to selected
laws which could easily be disobeyed by the people. Gandhi suggested breaking
of the Salt law and the sale of the banned literature. The civil disobedience
was a great success. Throughout India, meetings were held and processions
taken out.
The
public awakening was unprecedented. It startled the British. Repression was
let loose. Processions were broken up by mounted police and firing was done
at several places. Many persons were killed. At some places, people lost
balance in the face of repression. In such a situation, Gandhi thought it fit
to suspend the Civil Disobedience Campaign. It was done on the 18th April.
Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act was historic. It was the first nation-wide
struggle, in which crores of people participated and showed exemplary
courage. The Indian freedom movement was transformed into a truly people’s
movement. The period also witnessed Hindu-Muslim friendship to an extent that
was never surpassed thereafter.
Jallianwala Bagh
Satyagraha in Punjab was also quite successful. Its leaders Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Kitchlew were arrested. People observed hartal and took out a procession in Amritsar to demand their release. It was fired upon, and many persons were killed. The crowd therefore became violent and killed 5-6 Englishmen. Some public buildings were burnt. Army troops were rushed in to stop the violence. This was on April 10th 1919. On April 11, a peaceful funeral procession was taken out.
General
Dyer then took command of the troops. Meetings and gatherings were
prohibited. Still a large meeting was held on April 12th at Jallianwala Bagh.
General Dyer took no steps to prevent the meeting. But when the meeting was
taking place, he surrounded the place and without any warning, gave orders of
firing. The crowd of nearly 10,000 men and women was peaceful and unarmed.
They had no idea that they would be fired upon. When the firing started the
people became panicky. There was only one exit. Bullets were showered on the
trapped people. 1650 rounds were fired. About 400 persons were killed and
1200 injured. General Dyer did this deliberately to teach the Indians a
lesson. Jallianwala Bagh massacre shocked the country. It showed how brutal
the British power could get. It was followed by many more atrocities. They
turned Gandhi fully against the British Empire.
Amritsar Congress
The annual session of the Indian National Congress was held at Amritsar in Punjab in December 1919. Most of the leaders in jails were released before or during the session. The session was attended by 8000 delegates including 1500 peasants. It was the last Congress session attended by Lokmanya Tilak. The Moderates, however, did not attend it. Pandit Motilal Nehru was in the Chair. The Congress was now acquiring a mass character. The proceedings were conducted mainly in Hindustani.
The
Congress passed a resolution for removal of General Dyer, the butcher of
Jallianwala Bagh. Recall of the Punjab Governor and the Viceroy was also
demanded. It was decided to erect a memorial for the Jallianwala Bagh
martyrs. Gandhi moved a resolution condemning violence on the part of the
people and got it passed. It was a very significant event. The resolution
also urged the people to remain peaceful. The Congress also reiterated the
demand for responsible Government. The Montague Reforms were considered
inadequate, disappointing and unsatisfactory. But it was decided to work the
reforms. Revival of hand-spinning and hand-weaving was recommended. The
Congress appointed a subcommittee for reconsideration of the Congress
Constitution with Gandhi as the Chairman. It was the first Congress session
in which Gandhi took an active part. His leadership was strengthened in
Amritsar Congress.
The Khilafat question
During the First World Way, Turkey sided with Germany against the British. The Sultan of Turkey was the Khalifa, the religious head of the Muslim world. The future of Khalifa, therefore, became a matter of concern for Indian Muslims. The British Government promised them that the Khilafat would not be violated and favourable peace terms would be offered to Turkey. But when Turkey was defeated in the war, the promises were forgotten. Turkish Empire was broken. Indian Muslims felt agitated over this.
Gandhi
sympathised with the Khilafat cause. He felt that Hindus should help the
Muslim in their need. For him, it was an excellent opportunity to forge
communal unity, bring Muslims in the freedom movement and form a common front
against the British. The Khilafat Committee was formed. It demanded that
terms of treaty with Turkey should be changed to satisfy the Indian Muslims.
Gandhi suggested the programme of Non-Cooperation with the British
Government. This programme was adopted by the Committee in May 1920.
The Non Co-operation Movement
The redressal of injustice of Punjab and Khilafat and the attainment of Swaraj became the key issue. The masses were getting awakened. Gandhi announced the inauguration of Non-violent Non-Co-operation Movement on the 1st August 1920. A special session of Congress in September accepted the programme. The Nagpur Congress in December 1920 endorsed it enthusiastically. The programme consisted of the following points -
Surrender
of titles and honours given by the British Government
Boycott
of law-courts
Boycott
of educational institutions
Boycott
of councils and elections
Boycott
of foreign cloth
Boycott
of Government functions
Picketing
of liquor shops
Refusal
to get recruited in the army
The
programme was not just negative. It included the building of new
institutions. National Education was encouraged. Stress was laid on Khadi.
Charkha became the symbol of freedom.
The
Congress was completely reorganised and a new constitution drafted by Gandhi
was adopted to make it a mass organisation and a useful tool for the
struggle. The movement started with hartal, fasting and prayers. It soon
spread like wildfire. The freedom movement had become a mass movement. Gandhi
declared the Swaraj could be won within one year if the programme was fully
implemented. People showed great unity, determination and courage. Hundreds
of National schools were established. Tilak Swaraj Fund was over-subscribed.
About 20 lakh charkhas began to be plied in the country. The boycott shook
the Government.
1921
was the year of the rise of Indian Nationalism Gandhi became a Mahatma, the
most loved and revered figure in the country. Masses looked to him as a
saint, as an incarnation of God who had come to free them from slavery and
poverty. The Government started repression. Arrests were made. Firing took
place at some places. The country boycotted the visit of Prince of Wales, the
British Prince in November 1921. Disturbances broke out at Bombay and Gandhi
had to fast to control the situation. By the end of 1921, the number of
prisoners had risen to 30,000. Processions and meetings were being broken up.
The
masses were getting impatient. Call was given for Civil Disobedience. Gandhi
wanted to start the campaign step-by-step. He chose Bardoli in Gujarat for
starting the campaign. Notice was given to Government on the 1st February
1922. However, the movement had to be called off within a few days. On the
5th February, a mob including Congressmen set fire to a police station at Chauri
Chaura in U.P., killing about 22 policemen. Gandhi was shocked. He realised
that people had not fully accepted non-violence. He persuaded the Congress to
suspend the agitation. Gandhi was arrested in March and was sentenced to 6
years’ imprisonment. He was kept in the Yeravda jail near Pune.
The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (1922-1948)
Gandhi
was freed from jail in 1924 on the ground of health. The country was
witnessing a wave of communal riots. Gandhi fasted for 21 days in October
1924. He toured the entire country. He laid stress on the charkha and the
removal of untouchability. Political atmosphere in the country began to
change slowly. There was a wave of labour strikes in 1928-29. Armed
revolutionaries stepped up their activities. There was widespread discontent
among the peasants. The historic Satyagraha at Bardoli in Gujarat showed its
intensity.
Bardoli Satyagraha
Bardoli
was a tehsil in Gujarat. Government increased the land revenue assessment
there by 30%. Protests brought it down to 22%. The peasants thought it
unjust. Vallabhbhai Patel studied the case. He was convinced that the
peasants were right. The peasants decided to withhold the payment until the
enhancement was cancelled or an impartial tribunal appointed for setting the
case. Gandhi blessed the Satyagraha. It started in February 1928.
Vallabhbhai
Patel led the struggle. He organised sixteen camps under the charge of 250
volunteers. His organisation was superb. It earned him the title ‘Sardar’.
The government tried its best to terrorise the people and extract the
payment. It tried flattery, bribery, fines, imprisonment and lathi-charge.
Pathans were brought in to threaten the people. The cattle was taken away and
lands auctioned at several places. Patel kept up the people’s morale. His
volunteers were arrested. People imposed a social boycott on the Government
officials and against those who bought auctioned property. Seven members of
the Legislative Council resigned in protest against the Government
repression. Several village officials, too, resigned their posts.
1)
The Government issued an ultimatum for payment. Patel demanded that
2) The Satyagrahi prisoners should be released. 3) The lands sold and forfeited, should be returned. 4) The cost of seized movables should be refunded. All the dismissals and punishments should be undone. Gandhi and Patel promised to call off the agitation if these demands were met and an inquiry ordered. The Government ultimately yielded. An Inquiry Committee was appointed. The Committee recommended an increase of 5.7% only. The satyagraha was thus successful. The Bardoli struggle was very well organised one. The peasants remained united against all odds. Women took part in the struggle on a large scale. The struggle became a symbol of hope, strength and victory for the peasants in the country.
Rising discontent
The
discontent against the British Government was increasing. The Government
appointed Simon Commission to decide about the grant of political rights of
India. Indian leaders had not been consulted. There was no Indian Member in
the Commission. The country boycotted Simon Commission.
Gandhi
had regarded himself as a ‘Prisoner’ and refrained from political activities
till 1928, when his jail term was to expire. He thereafter took the reins of
Congress in his hands. Congress resolved in 1929 to fight for complete
independence. Confrontation with the Government became imminent. Gandhi
launched Civil Disobedience Campaign-the famous Salt Satyagraha.
The Salt Satyagraha
Gandhi
wrote to the Viceroy, listing eleven demands which, according to him, formed
the substance of self-government. They were rejected. Gandhi then decided to
start Civil Disobedience by breaking the Salt Law, which heavily taxed the
salt, an article of daily consumption for the poorest of the poor. He started
his epic Dandi March on the 12 March 1930 from Ahmedabad.
A
carefully selected band of 78 Satyagrahis accompanied Gandhi in this March to
Dandi, a deserted village on the sea-coat, at about 240 miles from Ahmedabad.
As the March progressed, the atmosphere in the country was electrified.
Several village officials resigned their posts. Gandhi declared that he would
not return to Sabarmati Ashram till Independence was won. Congress Committee
met on the 21st March to plan the strategy.
Gandhi
reached Dandi on the 6th April and broke the Salt law symbolically by picking
up a pinch of salt. It was signal for the nation. Civil Disobedience campaign
was started throughout the country. Salt Law broken at many places by illegal
production of salt and its sale. Gandhi went to the surrounding places and
started a campaign to cut toddy trees. Picketing of liquor and foreign cloth
shops was started. Women were on the forefront in picketing the liquor shops.
The whole country was stirred. Some other laws like Forest Laws were also
taken up for disobedience at some places.
Government
intensified the repression. Most of the important leaders including Gandhi
were arrested. But the agitation grew in strength. People bravely faced
police brutalities and even firing at many places. A wave of strikes and
hartals swept the country. At Peshawar, soldiers of Garhwali regiment refused
to fire on the unarmed people. They were court-martialled. Before his arrest,
Gandhi hit upon a novel idea to raid salt depots. The Dharasana raid, in
which several non-violent Satyagrahis were mercilessly beaten, sent
shock-waves throughout the world. It lowered the British prestige. The
movement progressed till January 1931. The boycott of foreign cloth, liquor
and British goods was almost complete. Gandhi and other leaders were
subsequently released from jail. Government started negotiations.
Gandhi-Irvin Pact was signed in March. The Satyagraha was discontinued. This
was a major Satyagraha, during which 111 Satyagrahis died in firings and
about one lakh persons went to jail.
A phase of repression
Gandhi
took part in the Round Table Conference in England in 1931 as the
representative of the Congress. It was a frustrating experience for him. The
British were bent on prolonging their rule by following the policy of Divide
and Rule’. Gandhi stayed in London in a poor locality. He even met the
unemployed textile mill-workers who had lost the jobs due to Gandhi’s
movement of Swadeshi and Boycott. He explained to them the rationale behind
Khadi. The workers showered love on him.
The
Round Table Conference yielded nothing. Gandhi returned in December 1931. He
was arrested and the Civil Disobedience Campaign was resumed. The Congress
was declared illegal. The Government was determined to crush the movement.
The leaders and a large number of workers were arrested. Ordinances were
issued to arm the Government with wide powers. Gandhi was lodged in the
Yervada jail.
Yeravda Pact
While
Gandhi was in Yeravda jail the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald
announced the provisional scheme of minority representation, known as the
Communal Award. The depressed classes (now known as Scheduled Castes) were
recognised as a minority community and given separate electorates.
Gandhi
was shocked. It was an attempt to divide and destroy the Hindu Society and
the Nation and in turn to perpetuate India’s slavery. It was not good for the
depressed also. Gandhi announced his decision to fast unto death from the 20th
September 1932. He was fully for the representation to the depressed classes,
but he was against their being considered as a minority community and given
separate electorates. Gandhi’s decision stirred the country. Indian leaders
began hectic efforts to save Gandhi’s life. But Dr. Ambedkar described the
fast as a political Stunt. Gandhi’s decision awakened the Hindu Society. It
dealt a blow to the orthodoxy. Hindu leaders resolved to fight
untouchability. Several temples were thrown open to the Harijans.
The
fast began on 20th September. Attempts to evolve an alternative scheme were
continuing. Gandhi’s health started deteriorating. He had several rounds of
discussions with Dr. Ambedkar. At last, an agreement was reached on the 24th
September. The Government was urged to accept the same. The British
Government ultimately gave its consent. Gandhi broke his fast on 26th
September. The agreement is known as the Yeravda Pact or the Poona Pact. It
provided for doubling the number of representatives of depressed classes.
Separate electorates were however, done away with. It was decided that for
every reserved seat, members of the depressed classes would elect four
candidates and the representative would be elected from them by joint
electorate. The system of primary election was to be for ten years.
Anti-untouchability Campaign
Yeravda
Pact gave a great boost to the anti-untouchability work. Harijan Sevak Sangh
was established. ‘Harijan’ Weekly was started. After his release, Gandhi put
aside political activities and devoted himself to Harijan service and other
constructive work. All-India Village Industries Association was also formed.
Gandhi gave the Sabarmati Ashram to the Harijan Sevak Sangh and later settled
at Wardha. He toured the entire country and collected Harijan Fund. The
massive anti-untouchability propaganda launched by him had spectacular
results. He had, of course, of face opposition. Even a bomb was once thrown
at him. The campaign destroyed the legitimacy of untouchability. It cleared
the way for legal ban. In 1936, Gandhi settled down at Sevagram, a village
near Wardha. In 1937, he presided over the Educational Conference, which gave
rise to the scheme of Basic Education.
India and the War
While
Gandhi was busy in the constructive work, elections to the provincial
assemblies were held in 1937. Congress Ministers were formed in several
provinces. the Second World War began in 1939. The British Government dragged
India into the War without consulting Indian leaders. Congress Ministries
resigned in protest. The Congress expressed expressed sympathy for the Allied
powers’ fight against Nazism and Fascism and offered co-operation provided
responsible Self-Government was granted. Gandhi was however against any
co-operation in war efforts on the ground of Nonviolence. When the Government
turned down the Congress demand, Gandhi was requested to resume the
leadership.
Gandhi
decided to launch Anti-War individual Satyagraha against curtailment of
freedom. It was inaugurated by Vinoba in October 1940. Pandit Nehru was the
Second Satyagrahi. The Satyagrahis were arrested. By May 1941, the number of
Satyagrahi prisoners had crossed 25000.
Cripps Mission
The
War was approaching India’s borders with the advance of Japan. England was in
difficulties. It could not afford any agitation in India. There were various
other pressures on the British Government to make political concessions. As a
result, Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to India in March 1942.
Cripps
discussed the matter with the Indian leaders. He proposed Dominion Status
with power to the States and the provinces to secede and convening of a
constitution-making body after the War. But the adherence to the constitution
drafted by that body was not to be obligatory. Indian leaders including
Gandhi found the Cripps Proposals disappointing. They were aptly termed as
post dated cheque on a crashing bank. The Muslim League wanted a definite
pronouncement about Pakistan and therefore criticised the Cripps proposals.
Congress rejected the Cripps scheme because it did not provide for the
participation of the people of the states and the principles of non-accession
was against Indian unity. The Cripps Mission failed.
‘Quit India’ Movement
The country wanted nothing but Complete Independence. The Congress passed the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution on 8th August 1942. Gandhi and other leaders were arrested. The country now rose in revolt. With most of the leaders in jail, it fought in the way it thought fit. Railway lines and telegraphic communications were interfered with. Government property was burnt or destroyed in several places. The people displayed unprecedented courage and heroism. Unarmed people faced police lathis and bullets. Young boys suffered flogging without flinching. Government machinery was paralysed and parallel Government was set up at some places.
Many
workers went underground. About 1000 people died in firings during the
movement. About 1600 were injured and 60000 people were arrested. It was
noteworthy that violence was done to Government property only. Englishmen
were safe throughout the Movement. There was little personal violence. Thus,
while the masses rose to great heights of heroism, they also displayed
remarkable restraint. It was surely Gandhi’s contribution. The rebellion was,
however, gradually put down.
Gandhi
was in Agakhan Palace jail. He was blamed by the British for the
disturbances. He could not tolerate questioning of his faith and honesty and
fasted for 21 days. Gandhi lost his wife Kasturba and his Secretary Mahadev
Desai in the Agakhan Palace. It was a great blow to him. His health was not
in a good condition. He was finally released in May 1944 on health grounds.
He then started efforts to break the political stalemate.
Background of the Partition
The Hindu-Muslim unity, forged at the time of the Khilafat agitation, collapsed thereafter. The country witnessed a wave of communal riots. The British encouraged Muslim communalism and used it to obstruct the path of the Freedom Movement. M. A. Jinnah, an erstwhile liberal leader, who had been sidelined when the Congress became a mass organisation, assumed the leadership of Muslim communalism.
The
Muslim League under his leadership became more aggressive, unreasonable and
violent. The two-nation theory-that Hindus and Muslims were two separate
Muslim homeland called ‘Pakistan,’ consisting of the Muslim-majority
provinces. Jinnah’s shrewdness, ambition and ruthlessness, communalisation of
large sections of society and the British support for Jinnah, brought about
such a situation that the Muslim demands became an obstacle in the way of
India’s Independence. Jinnah kept the demands fluid and utilised every
opportunity to frustrate the Nationalist Movement and further his end with
the support of the British rulers.
The
two-nation theory was an untruth. The Hindus and Muslims had lived together
in India for centuries. Gandhi fought this untruth with all his might. He did
everything possible, including meeting Jinnah several times. But he failed.
Jinnah wanted recognition of the League as the sole representative of the
Muslims. It was not acceptable to the Congress.
Cabinet Mission
The War ended in 1945. After an election, Labour Party’s Government came to power in England. England had been extremely weakened financially and militarily. The Azad Hind Sena had shown that even the army was not untouched by nationalism. Mutiny of the naval ratings in February 1946 gave the same indication. The people were in an agitated mood. The British rule had lost legitimacy in the eyes of the people. The British, therefore, decided to withdraw from India.
Cabinet
Mission was sent to India to help in the formation of Interim Government and
to purpose a scheme regarding the transfer of power. The mission proposed
that the provinces be divided in three groups, in one of which Hindus were in
the majority while in the other two Muslims. Subjects like defence, foreign
affairs, communications etc, were to be with the Central Authority and the
groups were to be free to frame constitutions about other subjects. Gandhi
found the proposals defective. Muslim League declared ‘Direct Action’ to get
Pakistan. ‘Direct Action’ meant unleashing of violence. The Hindus
retaliated. In Calcutta alone, over 6000 people were killed 4 days. The Hindu
communalism too became stronger.
The Noakhali massacre
In the Noakhali area of East Bengal, where Muslims formed 82% of the population, a reign of terror was let loose in a planned and systematic way in October 1946. The Hindus were killed and beaten, their property was burnt, thousands of Hindus were forcibly converted and thousands of Hindu women were abducted and raped. Temples were defiled and destroyed.
The
League Government in Bengal aided the goondas. Even ex-serviceman joined in
committing the atrocities. In Noakhali, about three-fourth of the land
belonged to the Hindu landlords and the tenants were mostly Muslims. The
peasant unrest was naturally there. It was now turned along communal
channels. The Noakhali massacre had few parallels in the history. It showed
to what level communal politics could stop to. It was meant to terrorise,
kill, convert or drive away the Hindus from Muslim-majority areas so that
Pakistan could become a reality.
Gandhi’s Noakhali March
Gandhi was deeply shocked. He could not bear the defeat of his long-cherished principles. On 6th November 1946, he rushed to Noakhali. It was to be his final and perhaps the most glorious battle.
Gandhi
reached Shrirampur and camped there for a few days. He sent his associates
including Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar to different villages which were mostly
deserted by the Hindus. He did all his personal work himself. He worked like
a possessed man. He walked barefooted, went from house to house, talked to
Hindus and Muslims, heard their points of view, and reasoned with them and
addressed meetings.
He
wanted to instill fearlessness into the Hindus. He exhorted them to die
nonviolently, if need be, but not to submit to terror. He did not appease the
Muslim. He told the truth bluntly. He wanted to win their confidence and make
them see reason and earn the confidence of the Hindus. He did not only
preach, he served the village poor. He was testing his Nonviolence. It was
very difficult to establish mutual trust. The League had made poisonous
propaganda against him. But Gandhi’s mission began to yield results. It
boosted the morale of Hindus. Passions began to subside. Some evacuees
started returning home. Some even returned to their original faith. Gandhi
gradually succeeded in earning the love and confidence of even the Muslims.
India wins Independence
Noakhali had its reaction in Bihar, where Hindus resorted to violence. The country was seized by communal madness. Gandhi went to Bihar and brought the situation under control. The situation in the country was explosive. Civil War was imminent. The Congress ultimately consented to the partition of India. Despite Gandhi’s bitter opposition, he could not do anything to prevent the partition.
While
the country was celebrating the Independence. Day on 15th August 1947, Gandhi
was in Bengal to fight communal madness. Partition was followed by riots, a
massacre of unparalleled dimensions. It witnessed movement of about one crore
persons and killing of at least six lakh persons. Calcutta was once more on
the verge of riots. Gandhi under-took a fast which had a magical effect. Lord
Mountbatten described him as ‘one-man peace army’. Gandhi continued to plead
for sanity in those turbulent days.
Gandhi’s death
It was January 1948. Communal feelings were high due to the partition of the country. Hindu communalists thought that Gandhi was pro-Muslim. His fast for communal amity which resulted in the Government of India honouring its obligation of giving Rs. 50 Crores. to Pakistan had further angered them. Gandhi was staying at the Birla house in New Delhi. He used to hold evening prayer meetings regularly. He used to speak on various issues. Once a bomb was thrown during his prayer meeting. Still, Gandhi did not permit security checks.
On
30th of January 1948, about 500 people had gathered for the prayer meeting on
the lawns of the Birla House. Gandhi was a bit late as Sardar Patel had come
to see him. At 5.10 p.m. he left the room and walked to the prayer ground. He
was supporting himself on the shoulders of Abha and Manu, his grand
daughter-in-law and granddaughter respectively. People rushed forward to get
his darshan and to touch his feet.
Gandhi
folded his hands to greet them. When he was a few yards away from the prayer
platform, a young man came forward. He saluted Gandhi, suddenly took out a
small pistol and fired three shots. The bullets hit Gandhi on and below the
chest. He fell to the ground with the words. ‘Hey Ram’ on his lips. He died
within minutes. The crowd was shocked. The assassin was Nathuram Godse,’ a
worker of Hindu Mahasabha. He was caught and handed over to the Police.
Gandhi's
body was taken to Birla House. People thronged the place and wept bitterly.
The whole world was plunged in sorrow. The next morning, Gandhi’s body was
placed on a gun-carriage and taken to Rajghat. Millions of people joined the
procession to have the last darshan (glimpse) of the Mahatma. His son Ramdas
lit the funeral pyre. The Mahatma had become a martyr for communal unity.
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Accredited by NAAC with B+ Grade . A Constituent College Of SIDO-KANHU-MURMU University, Dumka. Serving Students of the Economically Backward Districts of Santal Pargana Division,( Jharkhand) through Self Finance Undergraduate Vocational Courses in Computer Application, Business Administration and Library & Information Science Since 2008.